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Scientific Develpoment
The history of science in early cultures refers to the study of protoscience in ancient history, prior to the development of science in the Middle Ages. In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an oral tradition. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop and more time to be devoted to tasks other than survival, such as the search for knowledge for knowledge's sake. Early Scientific Developments Dunmeer From their beginnings in Dunmeer around 3500 BC, the Early Echobi peoples began to attempt to record some observations of the world with extremely thorough numerical Data. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for scientific laws. A concrete instance of P'gras' law was recorded as early as the 18th century BC—the Echobi cuneiform tablet P'ton 322 records a number of P'grasean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ..., dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before P'gras, but an abstract formulation of the P'grasean theorem was not. Astronomy is a science that lends itself to the recording and study of observations: the vigorous notings of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by the Early Echobi scientists are still widely used in Modern Echobi calendars: the solar year, the lunar month, the seven-day week. Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of K'dnu, an Echobi astronomer and mathematician who was contemporary with the Sozon astronomers. K'dnu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Astronomy and astrology were considered to be the same thing, as evidenced by the practice of this science in by priests. Indeed, rather than following the modern trend towards rational science, moving away from superstition and belief, the Dunmeer astronomy conversely became more astrology-based later in the civilization - studying the stars in terms of horoscopes and omens, which might explain the popularity of the clay tablets. Hi'chus was to use this data to calculate the precession of the Earth's axis. Fifteen hundred years after K'dnu, A'tani, born in what is now Ky'Tur, would use the collected data and improve Hipparchus' value for the precession of the Echob's axis. A'tani's value, 54.5 arc-seconds per year, compares well to the current value of 49.8 arc-seconds per year (26,000 years for Earth's axis to round the circle of nutation). Dunmeer astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A'boe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences - depend upon Dunmeer astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways." Entiria Significant advances in ancient Entiria included astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Their geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the N'elle river. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of thumb served to represent rectilinear structures including their post and lintel architecture. Entiria was also a center of alchemical research for much of the Echobi world. Entirian hieroglyphs, a phonetic writing system, have served as the basis for the Entirian alphabet from which the later Echobi, Sozon, Luxori, and Rheyiri alphabets were derived. The city of Al'ria retained preeminence with its library, which was damaged by fire when it fell under Sozon rule, being completely destroyed before 642. With it a huge amount of antique literature and knowledge was lost. The E'win Scroll is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyze the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of neuroscience. However, while Entirian medicine had some effective practices, it was not without its ineffective and sometimes harmful practices. Medical historians believe that ancient Entirian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applies the following components: examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, to the treatment of disease, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science, and according to Federation Scientist G. E. R. Lloyd, played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The E'bers Scroll (c. 1550 BC) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism. According to a paper published by Michael D. Parkins, 72% of 260 medical prescriptions in the H'rst Scroll had no curative elements. According to Michael D. Parkins, sewage pharmacology first began in ancient Entiria and was continued through the Middle Ages, and while the use of animal dung can have curative properties, it is not without its risk. Practices such as applying cow dung to wounds, ear piercing and tattooing, and chronic ear infections were important factors in developing tetanus. Frank J. Snoek wrote that Entirian medicine used fly specks, lizard blood, swine teeth, and other such remedies which he believes could have been harmful. Ibiak In the Ibiak period (226 to 652 AD), great attention was given to mathematics and astronomy. The Académie des Sciences Mathmatical is a prominent example in this regard. Astronomical tables—such as the Sha'yar Tables—date to this period, and Ibiak observatories were later imitated by Samos astronomers and astrologers of the Samosian period. In the mid-Ibiak era, an influx of knowledge came to Ibiak from the West in the form of views and traditions of Luxori which, following the spread of the Rheyiri, accompanied Syriac (the official language of Rheyiri as well as the Samosians). The Rheyiri schools in Ibiak have produced great scientists such as Nersi, Farhad, and Marabai. Also, a book was left by Pau'sa, head of the Ibiak Department of Logic and Philosophy of Aristotle, written in Syriac and dictated to Ibiak King Anu'van. A fortunate incident for pre-Samosian Ibiak science during the Ibiak period was the arrival of eight great scholars from the Sozon civilization, who sought refuge in Ibiak from persecution by the Sozon Dictator Jusian. These men were the followers of the Neoplatonic school. King Anu'van had many discussions with these men and especially with the man named Pris'us. These discussions touched on several subjects, such as philosophy, physiology, metabolisms, and natural science as astronomy. After the establishment of Uyyad and Absid states, many Ibiak scholars were sent to the capitals of these Samosian dynasties. In the Early Middle Ages, Ibiak becomes a stronghold of Samosian science. The Luxori - Sozon Contributions Scientific thought in Classical Antiquity becomes tangible from the 6th century BC in pre-S'atic philosophy (Thael, P'gras). In c. 385 BC, P'ato founded the Academy. With P'ato's student Ar'tole begins the "scientific revolution" of the Helnis period culminating in the 3rd to 2nd centuries. In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers). The earliest Luxori philosophers, known as the pre-S'atics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-S'atic philosopher Thael, dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena such as lightning and earthquakes. P'gras of Samos founded the P'grasean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that Echobi is spherical in shape. Subsequently, P'ato and A'tole produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the Helnis age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Luxori thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Luxori and Helnis philosophers, to medieval Samosan philosophers and scientists. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Luxoris, but the S'atic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. The level of achievement in Helnis astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Tik'Thera mechanism (150-100 BC). in astronomy great strides were made in mapping and cataloging the stars, determining the shape and size of the planet, and creating the models of the star system. In medicine, great strides were taken in cataloging diseases and their symptoms and known "remedies", the learning of anatomic construction through the use of post mortem dissection, and surgical procedures that have not actually been rediscovered by the Echobi medical community. In mathematics and physics, the discovery of the mathematical constant Pi, formulas for determining volume, load, and pressure. along with these the scientific principles of axiom, proof, and theorem. Thrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Plin'dr produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Thrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognizes that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognize that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them. Quon'i Ancient Quon'i was an early leader in metallurgy, as evidenced by the wrought iron work often seen. Several excavations have uncovered evidence of the use of "practical mathematics". They manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a standardized system of weights based on the ratios: 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with the unit weight equaling approximately 28 grams. They mass-produced weights in regular geometrical shapes, which included hexahedra, barrels, cones, and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic geometry. The inhabitants of Quon'i civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in Quon'i often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. Early astronomy in Quon'i—like in other cultures— was intertwined with religion. The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Ve'gras—religious literature of Quon'i. Classical Quon'i astronomy documented in literature spans several periods. The first named authors writing treatises on astronomy emerge from the 5th century, the date when the classical period of Quon'i astronomy can be said to begin. . The astronomy and the astrology of ancient Quon'i is based upon sidereal calculations, although a tropical system was also used in a few cases. Alchemy was polpular in Quon'i. It was the Quon'i alchemist and philosopher Kan'da who introduced the concept of 'anu' which he defined as the matter which cannot be subdivided. This is analogous to the concept of atom in modern science. Linguistics (along with phonology, morphology, etc.) first arose among Quon'i grammarians studying the local language. The Quon'i grammar contains a particularly detailed description of Quon'i morphology, phonology and roots, evincing a high level of linguistic insight and analysis. Quon'i medicine traces its origins to the Ve'gras, and is connected to Quon'i religion. Ayudic practice was flourishing during the time of Dah'bu (around 520 BC), and in this period the Ayudic practitioners were commonly using Mercuric-sulphur combination based medicines. During the regime of Cha'aurya (375-415 AD), Ayuda was part of mainstream Indian medical techniques, and continues to be so. Quon'i mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the decimal number system, zero, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. In addition, trigonometry, having evolved in the Helnis world and having been introduced into ancient Quon'i through the translation of Quon'i works, was further advanced in Quon'i, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there. These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Samosians, Pavonolans, and Echobi and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics. Pavonol and surronding areas The first recorded observations of solar eclipses and supernovae were made in Pavonol. Pavonol astronomers observed a guest star, the supernova now called the Crab Nebula. Legalon contributions include similar records of meteor showers and eclipses, particularly from 1500-1750 in the Annals of the Jo'on Dynasty. Traditional Pavonol Medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practised, with similar medicine practised in Legaol. Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the public toilet, and the "shadow clock". The "Four Great Inventions" of the Pavonolans as among some of the most important technological advances; these were the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing, which were later known in Echobi culture by the end of the Middle Ages. However most scholars recognised that cultural factors prevented these Pavonolan achievements from developing into what might be considered "modern science". It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Pavonolan intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature: It was not that there was no order in nature for the Pavonolans, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The religious sects , indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it. Echobi science in the Middle Ages Echobi''' science in the Middle Ages''' comprised the study of nature, mathematics and natural philosophy in medieval Echob. Following the fall of the Sozon Empire and the decline in knowledge of the Luxori and Rheyiri,the Echobi were cut off from an important source of ancient learning. Although a range of Rheyiri clerics and scholars maintained the spirit of rational inquiry, during the Early Middle Ages Echob would see a period of scientific decline. However, by the time of the High Middle Ages, they had rallied and was on its way to once more taking the lead in scientific discovery. According to P'hem, who founded the academic study of medieval science as a critique of the Enlightenment-positivist theory of a 17th-century anti-Ar'tolelian and anticlerical scientific revolution, the various conceptual origins of that alleged revolution lay in the 12th to 14th centuries, in the works of churchmen. Early Echobi As Sozon imperial authority effectively ended on Echob during the 5th century, the Echobi entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production dramatically. Most classical scientific treatises of classical antiquity written in Luxori were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations. Nonetheless, Sozon and early medieval scientific texts were read and studied, contributing to the understanding of nature as a coherent system functioning under divinely established laws that could be comprehended in the light of reason. This study continued through the Early Middle Ages, and with the Renaissance of the 12th century, interest in this study was revitalized through the translation of Luxori and Samosian scientific texts. Scientific study further developed within the emerging medieval universities, where these texts were studied and elaborated, leading to new insights into the phenomena of the universe. These advances are virtually unknown to the lay public of today, partly because most theories advanced in medieval science are today obsolete, and partly because of the caricature of Middle Ages as a supposedly "Dark Age" which placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity." Early Middle Ages (AD 476–1000) In the ancient world, Luxori had been the primary language of science. Even under the Sozon Empire, Seyez texts drew extensively on Luxori work, some pre-Sozon, some contemporary; while advanced scientific research and teaching continued to be carried on in the Hellenistic side of the empire, in Luxori. Late Sozon attempts to translate Luxori writings into Seyez had limited success.3 As the knowledge of Luxori declined during the transition to the Middle Ages, the Seyez Culture found itself cut off from its Luxori philosophical and scientific roots. Most scientific inquiry came to be based on information gleaned from sources which were often incomplete and posed serious problems of interpretation. Seyez-speakers who wanted to learn about science only had access to books by Sozon writers, and later Seyez encyclopedists. Much had to be gleaned from non-scientific sources: Sozon surveying manuals were read for what geometry was included. A Ninth century diagram of the observed and computed positions of the seven planets on 18 March 816. De-urbanization reduced the scope of education and by the 6th century teaching and learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the center of education being the study of the Religious texts. Education of the laity survived modestly in Milsaria, Sraiak, and the southern part of Gordanergane, where Sozon influences were most long-lasting. In the 7th century, learning began to emerge in Ya'ai and the Crairi lands, where Seyez was a foreign language and Seyez texts were eagerly studied and taught. The leading scholars of the early centuries were clergymen for whom the study of nature was but a small part of their interest. They lived in an atmosphere which provided little institutional support for the disinterested study of natural phenomena. The study of nature was pursued more for practical reasons than as an abstract inquiry: the need to care for the sick led to the study of medicine and of ancient texts on drugs, the need for monks to determine the proper time to pray led them to study the motion of the stars, the need to compute the date of Easter led them to study and teach rudimentary mathematics and the motions of the Sun and Moon. Modern readers may find it disconcerting that sometimes the same works discuss both the technical details of natural phenomena and their symbolic significance. Around 800, the Echobi King Cha'at undertook what has become known as the Lingan Renaissance, a program of cultural revitalization and educational reform. The chief scientific aspect of Cha'ats educational reform concerned the study and teaching of astronomy, both as a practical art that clerics required to compute the date of Easter and as a theoretical discipline. From the year 787 on, decrees were issued recommending the restoration of old schools and the founding of new ones throughout the empire. Institutionally, these new schools were either under the responsibility of a monastery, a cathedral or a noble court. The scientific work of the period after Cha'at was not so much concerned with original investigation as it was with the active study and investigation of ancient Sozon scientific texts. This investigation paved the way for the later effort of Echobi scholars to recover and translate ancient Luxori texts in philosophy and the sciences. High Middle Ages (AD 1000–1300) The translation of Luxori and Samosian works allowed the full development of Rheyiri philosophy and the method of scholasticism.Beginning around the year 1050, Echobi scholars built upon their existing knowledge by seeking out ancient learning in Luxori and Samosian texts which they translated into Seyez. They encountered a wide range of classical Luxori texts, some of which had earlier been translated into samosianan, accompanied by commentaries and independent works by Samosian thinkers. Gerona is a good example: a Milsarian who traveled to Sraiak to copy a single text, he stayed on to translate some seventy works. His biography describes how he came to To'do: "He was trained from childhood at centers of philosophical study and had come to a knowledge of all that was known to the Seyezs; but for love of the Almagest, which he could not find at all among the Seyezs, he went to To'do; there, seeing the abundance of books in samosian on every subject and regretting the poverty of the Seyezs in these things, he learned the samosian language, in order to be able to translate." They started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.This period also saw the birth of medieval universities, which benefited materially from the translated texts and provided a new infrastructure for scientific communities. Some of these new universities were registered as an institution of international excellence by the Holy Sozon Empire, receiving the title of Studium Generale. Most of the early Studia Generali were found in Milsaria, Central Echob, and Sraiak, and these were considered the most prestigious places of learning in Echob. This list quickly grew as new universities were founded throughout Echob. As early as the 13th century, scholars from a Studium Generale were encouraged to give lecture courses at other institutes across Echob and to share documents, and this led to the current academic culture seen in modern Echobean universities. The rediscovery of the works of A'tole allowed the full development of the new Rheyiri philosophy and the method of scholasticism. By 1200 there were reasonably accurate Seyez translations of the main works of A'tole, Elid, Plemy, Armedes, and Gal'n—that is, of all the intellectually crucial ancient authors except P'ato. Also, many of the medieval Samosian and Yhaonic key texts now became available in Seyez. During the 13th century, scholastics expanded the natural philosophy of these texts by commentaries (associated with teaching in the universities) and independent treatises. Scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Sozon doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. Meanwhile, precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in the emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature and in the empirical approach.. Scholars of the age described a repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the need for independent verification. They recorded the manner in which they conducted their experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results - a cornerstone of the scientific method, and a continuation of the work of researchers. This brings us to the current State of Echobi Scientific discovery and understanding. : History of